A transparent “golden source” tracing the economic architecture of enslavement.
This initiative constructs what is believed to be the first unified data model and ingestion platform for historical material related to transatlantic slavery.
It consolidates shipping logs, estate ledgers, tax records, compensation data, and archival documents into an open, auditable “golden source.”
Using modern AI and distributed contribution tools, the system builds a complete forensic chain of financial flows from capture to compensation.
The result is a transparent foundation for researchers, policymakers, and descendant communities to examine slavery’s economic legacy with unprecedented clarity.
This project focuses on documenting the slave trade and the economic and fiscal flows associated with it, together with the outputs of those held as slaves on plantations, in factories, and in households.
Slavery is a problem our societies still confront today.
The scope of this project is historical slavery, understood as the legally sanctioned systems that created, taxed, regulated, and later officially abolished slavery—though often only in part.
The table and timelines below set out how slavery became acceptable, taxable, regulated, and eventually abolished.
The United States still has the power to sentence a person convicted of a crime to slavery.
timeline
title Scope of TRAFFIC pilot study
1700-1780 : Atlantic World – Peak transatlantic volumes; British, French, Dutch at scale
1780-1830 : Europe & Americas – Abolitionist movements grow; trade bans begin
1807-1808 : UK & US – Trade abolition laws; illegal trade persists
1830-1865 : Caribbean & US – Emancipation laws; compensation to owners, forced labour variants
1865-1888 : US & Brazil – Final legal abolitions; rise of post-slavery systems
For the purposes of this project, TRAFFIC refers to the organised movement, sale, transfer, or forced relocation of human beings for exploitation or financial gain.
The term includes:
- Capture or coercion of individuals
- Forced transport by land or sea
- Sale or transfer of people as property
- Movement between plantations, estates, ships, or markets
- Inter-colonial or intra-national relocation for labour
- Ownership transfers through sale, inheritance, mortgage, or corporate control
- State-sanctioned relocation (penal labour, military impressment, judicial orders)
- Post-abolition systems that continued forced labour under new legal terms
This definition aligns with international standards (UN Palermo Protocol, ILO, OHCHR) and with the historical legal frameworks of the UK, Europe, the United States, and Brazil.
It is intentionally broad to allow accurate reconstruction of financial flows, ownership networks, and institutional responsibility across the entire transatlantic slavery system.
flowchart TB
TRAFFIC["TRAFFIC\n(Organised movement, sale, or forced relocation\nof human beings for exploitation or profit)"]
%% Capture / Coercion
CAP["Capture or Coercion\n(Abduction, raids, debt-bondage,\nforced conscription)"]
%% Transport
TRANS["Forced Transport\n(Land routes, coastal marches,\nMiddle Passage, inter-colonial movement)"]
%% Sale / Transfer
SALE["Sale or Transfer of Ownership\n(Auctions, private sales, mortgages,\ninheritance, estate transfers)"]
%% Labour Exploitation
LABOUR["Forced Labour Deployment\n(Plantations, mines, domestic labour,\nship labour, military use)"]
%% Institutional / State Movement
STATE["State-Sanctioned Movement\n(Penal labour, judicial orders,\ncolonial relocation policies)"]
%% Post-Abolition Variants
POST["Post-Abolition Successor Systems\n(Convict leasing, sharecropping,\nindenture, segregation labour regimes)"]
%% Relationships
TRAFFIC --> CAP
TRAFFIC --> TRANS
TRAFFIC --> SALE
TRAFFIC --> LABOUR
TRAFFIC --> STATE
TRAFFIC --> POST
timeline
title Regional Phases of the Transatlantic Slave System
1400-1600 : West Africa & Europe – Early coastal trade; Portuguese and Spanish dominance
1600-1700 : Caribbean & Americas – Plantation systems expand; sugar, tobacco, coffee
1700-1780 : Atlantic World – Peak transatlantic volumes; British, French, Dutch at scale
1780-1830 : Europe & Americas – Abolitionist movements grow; trade bans begin
1807-1808 : UK & US – Trade abolition laws; illegal trade persists
1830-1865 : Caribbean & US – Emancipation laws; compensation to owners, forced labour variants
1865-1888 : US & Brazil – Final legal abolitions; rise of post-slavery systems
1900-1960s : Global – Colonial labour, segregation, racialised economic structures endure
timeline
title Transatlantic Slavery Legislation Timeline (Europe, UK, USA, Brazil)
1444 : Portugal begins organised slave trade
1455 : Papal Bull "Romanus Pontifex" legally authorises enslavement of Africans
1518 : Spain grants first Asiento licence (mass importation to Americas)
1621 : Dutch West India Company chartered (slave trading rights)
1660 : Royal African Company founded (English slave trade monopoly)
1685 : French Code Noir formalises slavery
1700s : UK, France, Spain expand pro-slavery trade laws and privileges
1788 : UK Dolben’s Act regulates slave ship conditions (trade remains legal)
1794 : France abolishes slavery (1st Republic; reinstated 1802)
1807 : UK Abolition of the Slave Trade Act
1808 : US prohibits importation of enslaved Africans
1833 : UK Slavery Abolition Act (+ £20m compensation to owners)
1848 : France abolishes slavery permanently
1850 : Brazil bans slave imports (Eusébio de Queirós Law)
1863 : US Emancipation Proclamation
1865 : US 13th Amendment abolishes slavery “except as punishment for a crime”
1888 : Brazil abolishes slavery (Lei Áurea)
| Country | Legalisation / Expansion | Regulation / Encouragement | Abolition of Trade | Abolition of Slavery |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Portugal | 1444: First African slave shipments; 1455: Papal Bull | Crown licences expand Brazil-African trade | Gradual, under pressure from Britain | 1869 (formal end), still active in colonies until late 1800s |
| Spain | 1518: Asiento licence for African imports | Outsourced Asientos to other European traders | Early 1800s, final suppression 1820s | 1886 (Cuba), 1873 (Puerto Rico) |
| France | 1685: Code Noir legalises slavery in colonies | 1716–1760s: Trade expansion laws | 1815 (Napoleon’s fall); 1826 enforcement | 1848 (Second Republic) |
| Netherlands | 1621: Dutch West India Co. chartered | Vast expansion in Suriname & Caribbean | 1814 (trade banned) | 1863 (Slavery ended; forced labour until 1873) |
| United Kingdom | 1660: Royal African Company monopoly | 1698: Trade opened; 1700s Navigation Acts encourage | 1807: Abolition of Slave Trade Act | 1833: Slavery Abolition Act (compensation to owners) |
| United States | 1660s–1700s: Colonial slave codes | Constitution protects trade until 1808; 1850 Fugitive Slave Act | 1808: Importation banned | 1865: 13th Amendment |
| Brazil | Mid-1500s: Crown sanctions large-scale imports | 1700s–1800s expansion tied to sugar & coffee | 1850: Eusébio de Queirós Law | 1888: Lei Áurea (last in Western hemisphere) |
timeline
title UK – Slavery & Slave Trade Legislation
1660 : Royal African Company chartered (English trade monopoly)
1698 : Monopoly ended, trade opened to private merchants
1788 : Dolben’s Act regulates slave ship conditions
1807 : Abolition of the Slave Trade Act
1833 : Slavery Abolition Act (compensation to slave owners)
1838 : End of "apprenticeship" – full emancipation in the colonies
timeline
title United States – Slavery & Slave Trade Legislation
1660s : Colonial slave codes make slavery hereditary and racial
1788 : US Constitution (3/5 compromise, Fugitive Slave Clause)
1808 : Importation of enslaved Africans banned
1850 : Fugitive Slave Act strengthens slaveholder powers
1863 : Emancipation Proclamation (Confederate states)
1865 : 13th Amendment abolishes slavery "except as punishment for crime"
NOW : Slavery "except as punishment for crime" still in force
timeline
title Brazil – Slavery & Slave Trade Legislation
1500s : Portuguese Crown sanctions mass import of enslaved Africans
1850 : Eusébio de Queirós Law bans slave imports
1871 : Law of the Free Womb (children remain tied until adulthood)
1885 : Sexagenarian Law (partial emancipation of the elderly)
1888 : Lei Áurea (Golden Law) abolishes slavery
timeline
title Compensation, Manumission & Post-Abolition Systems
1807 : UK bans slave trade; slavery continues in colonies
1833 : UK Slavery Abolition Act – £20m compensation to slave owners
1834-1838 : UK "apprenticeship" system – coerced labour persists
1848 : France abolishes slavery; partial compensation to owners
1863 : Dutch abolition – 10-year forced labour period
1865 : US 13th Amendment – exception clause enables convict leasing
1865-1900 : US Black Codes, convict leasing, sharecropping expand
1850-1880s : Indentured labour systems in Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Americas
1888 : Brazil abolition – no land, no reparations to freed people
1900s-1960s : Segregation, Jim Crow, colonial labour regimes
This project is designed first and foremost for:
- Descendants of enslaved people – seeking accurate, evidence-based family, community, and lineage histories.
- Potential plaintiffs – preparing for legal or civic actions relating to reparations, accountability, or historical responsibility.
Secondary beneficiaries include:
- Governments (national and local) – developing or preparing for policy, commissions, or legislation relating to reparations, historical justice, or institutional accountability.
- Historians and archivists – requiring integrated, cross-archive documentation.
- Economists, legal scholars, and policymakers – supporting transparent and defensible reparations modelling.
- Journalists and documentary teams – investigating historical and institutional links.
- Educational institutions – teaching the economic, social, and political history of enslavement.
- Public bodies and NGOs – working on truth, justice, and reconciliation.
- Institutions with historical ties (banks, insurers, churches, estates) – pursuing transparency, auditing, and acknowledgment.
flowchart TB
P["Golden Source Project\n(Forensic Slavery Data Platform)"]
D1["Descendants of Enslaved People"]
P1["Potential Plaintiffs"]
G1["Governments\n(National & Local)"]
H1["Historians & Archivists"]
E1["Economists,\nLegal Scholars,\nPolicymakers"]
J1["Journalists &\nDocumentary Teams"]
EDU["Educational\nInstitutions"]
NGO["Public Bodies & NGOs"]
INST["Institutions with\nHistorical Ties\n(Banks, Insurers,\nChurches, Estates)"]
P --> D1
P --> P1
P --> G1
P --> H1
P --> E1
P --> J1
P --> EDU
P --> NGO
P --> INST
D1 --> P
P1 --> P
G1 --> P
H1 --> P
E1 --> P
J1 --> P
EDU --> P
NGO --> P
INST --> P
flowchart LR
%% *** DATA ORIGINS ***
A1["Capture Points\n(West Africa, Bunce Island, etc.)"]
A2["Shipping Logs\n(Voyages, Manifests, Owners)"]
A3["Ports & Brokers\n(Bristol, Liverpool, London)"]
A4["Estates & Plantations\n(Ledgers, Accounts)"]
A5["Colonial Records\n(Tax, Duties, Imports/Exports)"]
A6["Compensation Records\n(1830s Payments)"]
A7["Family & Estate Archives\n(Wills, Trusts, Letters)"]
A8["Modern Descendant Material\n(Genealogy, Oral Histories)"]
%% *** INGESTION LAYER ***
B1["Remote Submission Portal\n(Volunteers & Institutions)"]
B2["Automated OCR & Extraction"]
B3["AI Entity Matching\n(Names, Ships, Estates, Places)"]
B4["Data Cleaning & Normalisation"]
%% *** CENTRAL MODEL / GOLDEN SOURCE ***
C1["Unified Data Model"]
C2["Golden Source Database"]
C3["Secure, Versioned Data Store"]
%% *** ANALYTICS LAYER ***
D1["Forensic Financial Modelling"]
D2["Ownership & Transfer Mapping"]
D3["Profit & Revenue Reconstruction"]
D4["Network Graphs\n(Individuals, Companies, Institutions)"]
D5["Descendant Lineage Tools"]
D6["Public Search & Transparency Portal"]
%% FLOWS
A1 --> B1
A2 --> B2
A3 --> B3
A4 --> B3
A5 --> B4
A6 --> B4
A7 --> B1
A8 --> B1
B1 --> B3
B2 --> B4
B3 --> B4
B4 --> C1
C1 --> C2
C2 --> C3
C3 --> D1
C3 --> D2
C3 --> D3
C3 --> D4
C3 --> D5
C3 --> D6
flowchart LR
%% DATA PROVIDERS
AF["African Archives\n(Departure Records,\nLocal Histories)"]
SHIP["Shipping & Maritime Records\n(Voyages, Manifests,\nOwnership, Insurance)"]
PORTS["UK Port Authorities\n(Bristol, Liverpool, London)"]
EST["Estate & Plantation Archives\n(Accounts, Ledgers,\nWills, Labour Records)"]
GOV["Government & Colonial Offices\n(Tax, Duties, Legal Papers)"]
COMP["Compensation Records\n(1830s Payments,\nUCL LBS Links)"]
INST["Institutions with Ties\n(Banks, Insurers,\nChurches, Corporations)"]
FAM["Families & Descendants\n(Genealogy, Oral History)"]
VOL["Volunteers & Citizen\nArchivists (Digitisation)"]
%% INGESTION PIPELINE
ING1["Remote Upload Portal"]
ING2["OCR, AI Extraction,\nEntity Matching"]
ING3["Cleaning & Normalisation"]
%% CENTRAL SYSTEM
GS["Golden Source Database\n(Unified Forensic Model)"]
%% FLOWS TO INGESTION
AF --> ING1
SHIP --> ING2
PORTS --> ING2
EST --> ING2
GOV --> ING3
COMP --> ING3
INST --> ING1
FAM --> ING1
VOL --> ING1
%% INGESTION TO GOLDEN SOURCE
ING1 --> ING2
ING2 --> ING3
ING3 --> GS
flowchart TB
CORE["Core Project Team\n(Data, AI, Engineering,\nArchive Integration)"]
%% ADVISORY LAYERS
AD1["Historical Advisory Board\n(Historians, Archivists,\nCultural Institutions)"]
AD2["Legal & Policy Panel\n(Reparations Experts,\nHuman Rights Lawyers,\nGovernment Advisers)"]
AD3["Descendant & Community Council\n(Caribbean, African diaspora,\nUS & UK communities)"]
AD4["Ethics & Transparency Group\n(Open Data, Fairness,\nSafeguards)"]
AD5["Institutional Liaison Network\n(Banks, Churches,\nCorporations,\nUniversities)"]
%% FLOWS INTO CORE
AD1 --> CORE
AD2 --> CORE
AD3 --> CORE
AD4 --> CORE
AD5 --> CORE
%% FLOWS OUTWARD (FEEDBACK LOOP)
CORE --> AD1
CORE --> AD2
CORE --> AD3
CORE --> AD4
CORE --> AD5
This project is structured as a public-benefit initiative requiring broad and internationally trusted support. Funding will be sought from:
- United Nations bodies (UNESCO, UNDP, OHCHR, UNFPA)
- African Union (AU) and CARICOM Reparations Commission
- Major international NGOs (Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, IJM)
- Mellon Foundation
- Ford Foundation
- Open Society Foundations
- Nuffield, Leverhulme, Wellcome
- Skoll, Rockefeller, and similar global philanthropies
- EU Horizon
- UKRI (ESRC, AHRC)
- Swiss National Science Foundation
- University consortiums and research centres
- National and local governments preparing policy or legislation
- Truth and reconciliation commissions
- Cultural ministries and justice departments
- Institutions with historical ties (banks, insurers, churches, universities)
- Organisations seeking transparency, auditing, or accountability
- To maintain independence and long-term sustainability
Pre-Seed (£50k–£150k)
- Data model, infrastructure, initial ingestion
Seed (£250k–£750k)
- Pilot archives, volunteer portal, advisory structure
Series A (£1m–£3m)
- Public portal, forensic modelling, descendant tools
Series B (£3m–£10m)
- Global expansion, multilingual interfaces, sustainability
flowchart LR
A["Pre-Seed\n£50k–£150k\n(Data model, infra,\nsmall-scale ingestion)"]
B["Seed\n£250k–£750k\n(Pilot archives,\nvolunteer portal)"]
C["Series A\n£1m–£3m\n(Public portal,\nforensic tools,\ndescendant tools)"]
D["Series B\n£3m–£10m\n(Global expansion,\nlong-term sustainability)"]
A --> B --> C --> D
At present, no project provides a single, unified, public “source of truth” that reconstructs the complete financial architecture of slavery—from capture points through transport, ownership, labour, profit, taxation, and compensation.
Existing efforts are valuable but fragmented:
- Slave Voyages Database – Maritime-only; no financial trail.
- UCL – Legacies of British Slave-ownership – Strong ownership & compensation data; limited integration.
- National Archives (Kew) – Holds vast records; no unified schema or transparency.
- Institutional acknowledgements – Banks, insurers, churches; no forensic audits.
- Academic research – Rich but siloed; no integrated financial modelling.
No existing initiative builds a financial chain of evidence across regions, institutions, and centuries.
End-to-end reconstruction of financial flows—from capture to compensation.
Open, permanent, and designed for public scrutiny and contribution.
Software already in place for remote submission by volunteers and record-keepers.
A schema capable of supporting defensible quantum calculations.
A platform enabling accurate, evidence-based family and community history.
A system designed to link digital archives, national repositories, academic datasets, and contributed material.